Three Indian Ocean structures named Ashoka, Chandragupt and Kalpataru

News:

• Three underwater geographical structures located in the Indian Ocean have been awarded names proposed by India.
• Previous structures named after physicist CV Raman, oceanographer NK Panikkar and geologist DN Wadia.
• In all, there are now seven structures in the Indian Ocean named mainly after Indian scientists or bear names proposed by India in the Indian Ocean region.

Description:

• Named after the rulers of the Mauryan dynasty are the Ashoka seamount and the Chandragupt ridge.
• Kalpataru ridge is the third structure for which the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) have recently awarded names originally proposed by India.
• All the three recently named structures were discovered by oceanographers from the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Goa.
• Location: These are located along the Southwest Indian Ridge area of the Indian Ocean and were discovered during an international survey exploration programme.
• These sea explorations aim at studying the bio-geochemistry, biodiversity, lower atmospheric processes, paleoclimate, hydrodynamics, and air-sea interactions.

Discovery:

• Ashok seamount: It was with the help of the Russian Sea vessel Akademik Nikolay Strakhov that the Indian research team discovered the Ashok seamount in 2012.
• Kalpataru ridge: Also discovered by the same Russian vessel in 2012 was the elongated Kalpataru ridge.
• Experts said that this ridge may have supported marine life, habitat shelter and food for various species.
• Chandragupt ridge: Discovered in 2020 by the Indian Ocean research vessel MGS Sagar, the Chandragupt ridge is an elongated and oval shaped body.
• Raman ridge: Previously, other structures bearing Indian names include the Raman ridge (accepted in 1992), discovered in 1951 by a US oil vessel.
• Panikkar seamount: In 1992, the Panikkar seamount (accepted in 1993) was discovered by India research vessel Sagar Kanya.
• Sagar Kanya: For its successful 22nd cruise in 1986 leading to its discovery, a seamount was named after the research vessel Sagar Kanya (accepted in 1991) itself.
• DN Wadia: Geologist DN Wadia was honoured when an underwater volcanic mountain, known as guyot, was named after him in 1993 following its discovery in 1992 by Sagar Kanya.

Ridge:

• It is a long, narrow, elevated landform with steep sides that separates it from the surrounding terrain.
• Ridges can be made up of a chain of hills or mountains that form a continuous crest for some distance.

International Hydrographic Organization (IHO):

• It is an intergovernmental organization that works to ensure all the world’s seas, oceans and navigable waters are surveyed and charted.
• Established in 1921, it coordinates the activities of national hydrographic offices and promotes uniformity in nautical charts and documents.
• It issues survey best practices, provides guidelines to maximize the use of hydrographic survey data and develops hydrographic capabilities in Member States.
• Note: Hydrography is the basis for all activities involving the sea.
• States are represented within the IHO by the national authority responsible for the provision of hydrographic and nautical charting services in each Member State.
• Member States: It has currently 100 Member States. India is one of the member states.
• Secretariat: The IHO Secretariat has been hosted by the Principality of Monaco since the creation of the organization in 1921.
• IHO Organizations: Assembly, Council, Committees & Working Groups and Project Teams.
• IHO Assembly: It is the main organ of the Organization, formed by the representatives of the Member States.
• It meets every three years to provide general guidance on the functioning and work of the Organization, as well as taking decisions of technical and administrative nature.
• IHO Council: During the inter-Assembly period the Council coordinates the activities of the Organization.
• The Council meets once a year and submits its reports, observations, recommendations, and draft decisions to the Assembly and the IHO Member States for approval.

World Hydrography Day:

• Celebrated on 21 June, World Hydrography Day is designed to raise awareness about hydrography and how it plays a role in improved knowledge of the seas and oceans.

UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC):

• It promotes international cooperation in marine sciences to improve management of the ocean, coasts and marine resources.
• The IOC enables its 150 Member States to work together by coordinating programmes in capacity development, ocean observations and services, ocean science, tsunami warning and ocean literacy.
• India is one of the 150 member states of IOC.
• The work of the IOC contributes to the mission of UNESCO to promote the advancement of science and its applications to develop knowledge and capacity, key to economic and social progress, the basis of peace and sustainable development.
• Ocean Decade: The IOC is in charge of coordinating the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021-2030, the “Ocean Decade”.
• Governing bodies:
• The IOC Assembly meets once per biennium, while an Executive Council meets every year.
• The purpose of the Assembly is to review the work of the Commission, including the work of the Member States and the Secretariat, and formulate a common work plan for the coming two years.
• The Executive Council consists of up to 40 Member States, reviews issues and items from on-going work plans, and makes preparations for the Assemblies.

DNA Profiling

Context:

• DNA profiling and its value in establishing guilt or innocence

DNA:

• DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid, and it is genetic material present in the nuclei of cells in living organisms. An average human body is composed of about 100 trillion cells.
• DNA is present in the nucleus of a cell as a double helix, supercoiled to form chromosomes along with intercalated proteins.
• Twenty-three pairs of chromosomes are present in each nucleated cell, and an individual inherits 23 chromosomes from the mother and 23 from the father transmitted through the ova and sperm, respectively.
• All information about internal organisation, physical characteristics, and physiological functions of the body is encoded in DNA molecules in a language (sequence) of alphabets of four nucleotides or bases :
• Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T), and Cytosine (C), along with the sugar phosphate backbone.
• Since the same DNA sequence is present in every cell of the body (apart from mature red blood cells) therefore, DNA can be sourced from any biological material.
• This includes saliva, semen, vaginal fluids, blood, body tissues, teeth, hair, and bones.
• The quantity of DNA contained in biological material varies.
• Blood and saliva are richer sources of DNA as compared to teeth and hair roots, which are DNA deficient.
• Touch DNA: DNA may be left behind on objects during physical contact, which is commonly referred to as touch DNA or trace DNA.
• Touch DNA contains very low amounts of DNA and is not an ideal source for DNA profiling.

DNA profiling:

• Also known as DNA fingerprinting, is a laboratory technique that compares an individual’s DNA to evidence found at a crime scene or for other purposes.
• DNA in all human beings is 99.9% identical. In forensic DNA profiling, a few locations in the remaining 0.1% of DNA are chosen to create a person’s DNA profile.
• Loci: These specific locations at which the DNA is examined are called loci.
• STRs: These loci have repetitive sequences of DNA called Short Tandem Repeats, or STRs.
• Alleles: While every individual has the same sequence, or STR, on a locus, the number of times that it repeats itself may vary across individuals. This variation in the number of repetitions is referred to as alleles.
• At a given locus, an individual has two alleles, one inherited from the father and the other from the mother.
• The current genetic markers of choice for forensic purposes are STRs.
• STRs present on the Y chromosome are used in sexual assault cases or to determine paternal lineage.
• DNA profiling is complicated, and each sequential step involved in generating a profile can vary depending on the facilities available in the laboratory.
• The analysis principles, however, remain: isolation, purification and quantitation of DNA, amplification of selected genetic markers, visualising the fragments and genotyping, statistical analysis and interpretation.
• There are three possible outcomes of a profile comparison:
• Match: If the DNA profiles obtained from the two samples are indistinguishable, they are said to have matched.
• Exclusion: If the comparison of profiles shows differences, it can only be explained by the two samples originating from different sources.
• Inconclusive: The data does not support a conclusion.
• DNA analysis as a process is based on probability and, in that sense, cannot be considered conclusive evidence.
• There are definite pitfalls, particularly with sample contamination, where there is a delay in lifting the sample or testing it, when the sample becomes unviable, or the samples themselves are switched. Then the tests turn out inconclusive.

Conclusion:

• In Pattu Rajan v. State of T.N. 2019, judges considered the value to be attached to a DNA report:
• “Like all other opinion evidence, the probative value accorded to DNA evidence also varies from case to case, depending on facts and circumstances and the weight accorded to other evidence on record, whether contrary or corroborative.
• This is all the more important to remember, given that even though the accuracy of DNA evidence may be increasing with the advancement of science and technology with every passing day, thereby making it more and more reliable, we have not yet reached a juncture where it may be said to be infallible.
• Thus, it cannot be said that the absence of DNA evidence would lead to an adverse inference against a party, especially in the presence of other cogent and reliable evidence on record in favour of such party.”

Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs)

News:

• SEBI Amends rule for Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs)

Context:

• SEBI has amended Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs) norms specifying maximum permissible limit for extension of tenure by ‘Large Value Funds’.

Alternate Investment Fund (AIF):

• Alternative Investment Fund or AIF means any fund established or incorporated in India which is a privately pooled investment vehicle which collects funds from sophisticated investors, whether Indian or foreign, for investing it in accordance with a defined investment policy for the benefit of its investors.
• AIF does not include funds covered under the SEBI (Mutual Funds) Regulations, 1996, SEBI (Collective Investment Schemes) Regulations, 1999 or any other regulations of the Board to regulate fund management activities.

Category I AIFs:

• AIFs which invest in start-up or early stage ventures or social ventures or SMEs or infrastructure or other sectors or areas which the government or regulators consider as socially or economically desirable and shall include venture capital funds, SME Funds, social venture funds, infrastructure funds etc.,

Category II AIFs:

• AIFs which do not fall in Category I and III and which do not undertake leverage or borrowing other than to meet day-to-day operational requirements and as permitted in the SEBI (Alternative Investment Funds) Regulations, 2012.
• Various types of funds such as real estate funds, private equity funds (PE funds), funds for distressed assets, etc. are registered as Category II AIFs.

Category III AIFs:

• AIFs which employ diverse or complex trading strategies and may employ leverage including through investment in listed or unlisted derivatives.
• Various types of funds such as hedge funds, PIPE Funds, etc. are registered as Category III AIFs.

Angel Fund:

• Angel fund is a sub-category of Venture Capital Fund under Category I Alternative Investment Fund that raises funds from angel investors.
• In case of an angel fund, it shall only raise funds by way of issue of units to angel investors.
• Angel investor: Any person who proposes to invest in an angel fund and satisfies one of the following conditions,
• An individual investor who has net tangible assets of at least two crore rupees excluding value of his principal residence, and who:
• has early stage investment experience, or
• has experience as a serial entrepreneur, or
• is a senior management professional with at least ten years of experience
• A body corporate with a net worth of at least ten crore rupees; or
• An AIF registered under AIF regulations or a VCF registered under the SEBI (Venture Capital Funds) Regulations, 1996.
• Angel funds shall accept, up to a maximum period of 3 years, an investment of not less than `25 lakh from an angel investor.

Debt Fund:

• Debt fund is an Alternative Investment Fund (AIF) which invests primarily in debt or debt securities of listed or unlisted investee companies according to the stated objectives of the Fund. These funds are registered under Category II.
• In this regard, it is clarified that, since Alternative Investment Fund is a privately pooled investment vehicle, the amount contributed by the investors shall not be utilised for purpose of giving loans.

Fund of Funds:

• Fund of Funds, in general parlance as gathered from publicly available sources is an investment strategy of holding a portfolio of other investment funds rather than investing directly in stocks, bonds or other securities.
• In the context of AIFs, a Fund of Fund is an AIF which invest in another AIF.