Discovery of Lithium Deposits in J&K

The Geological Survey of India found “inferred resources” of 5.9 million tonnes of lithium in the Salal-Haimana area of Reasi district in Jammu and Kashmir.

What is Lithium?

Lithium is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3.

It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal and is the lightest metal on the periodic table.

It is used in a variety of applications, including batteries, lubricants, pharmaceuticals, and nuclear weapons.

Applications of Lithium

Lithium-ion batteries: Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in consumer electronics such as laptops, cellphones, and portable music players due to their high energy density and low self-discharge rate.

Pharmaceuticals: Lithium is used in the treatment of bipolar disorder and other mental health disorders. It can be used to treat symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and aggression.

Heat transfer fluids: Lithium is used as a heat transfer fluid in nuclear power plants, as it can absorb and store large amounts of heat.

Air conditioning: Lithium-based compounds are used in air conditioning systems to absorb and store heat, which helps to cool air.

Alloy production: Lithium is used to produce lightweight alloys for aircraft and spacecraft, as well as components for other vehicles.

Grease lubricants: Lithium-based grease lubricants are used in automotive and industrial applications due to their high temperature and pressure tolerance.

Significance of this discovery

Clean energy goals: This has raised hopes of India possibly developing its own source of a metal key to its clean energy goals.

Import cuts: It would reduce the need for imports. The government was taking several measures to secure minerals, including lithium, from Australia and Argentina.

Enhance battery production: The find is a major boost to the manufacture of rechargeable batteries for smartphones, laptops and electric cars.

Religious Excommunication of Members

A Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court referred to a larger Bench of nine judges a series of petitions challenging the authority of minority community leaders to excommunicate their members.

Excommunication case: A quick backgrounder

On November 1, 1949, the Bombay Prevention of Excommunication Act (now repealed) was enacted, which sought to prevent the practice of excommunication prevalent in certain communities.

Excommunication has led to the deprivation of legitimate rights and privileges of its members and in “keeping with the spirit of changing times and in public interest”.

What is Excommunication?

The law defined excommunication as the “expulsion of a person from any community of which he is a member, depriving him of rights and privileges which are legally enforceable by a suit of civil nature”.

It invalidated excommunication of any member, “notwithstanding anything contained in law, custom, usage” for the time being in force.

Issues with Excommunication

Discriminatory: Excommunication is a serious and permanent punishment that can have a negative impact on a person’s life.

Loss of identity: It can lead to a person feeling isolated, ostracized and excluded from the religion and community.

Social boycott: It may also lead to feelings of guilt, shame and alienation. Furthermore, it can lead to a loss of faith and a sense of mental despair.

How did the matter reach the Supreme Court?

A cleric of the community challenged the constitutional validity of the Act, stating it violated fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution under:

Article 25 (Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion) and

Article 26 (Freedom to manage religious affairs)

It was submitted that the power of excommunication was part of the management of community affairs in matters of religion.

The cleric also held that the power to excommunicate is not absolute or arbitrary.

What has been happening in the matter more recently?

A Constitution Bench of the SC held in 1962 that the cleric’s position is an essential part of the community and the power to excommunicate is to enforce discipline and preserve the denomination, not to punish.

A challenge to the 1962 judgment was filed in 1986.

While that petition was still pending, the Maharashtra Protection of People from Social Boycott (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2016, was passed.

The 2016 Act prohibits the social boycott of a person or a group of persons, and terms it a violation of fundamental rights.

The Act describes a social boycott as “inhuman”, and defines 16 types of social boycott — including preventing members of a community from having access to facilities including community halls, burial grounds, etc.

What exactly did the Supreme Court say now?

A Constitution Bench said that the 1962 judgment needed a relook.

The court held that the consideration was needed mainly on two grounds: Balancing the rights under-

Article 26(b) — right of religious denominations to manage their own affairs in matters of religion — and

Article 21 — whether the practice can be protected under Article 26(b) when tested on the touchstone of constitutional morality.

Delhi-Mumbai Expressway

The Delhi-Mumbai Expressway is a proposed 1380 km expressway that will link the capital city of Delhi to Mumbai, India.

The expressway is being planned as a six-lane expressway and will pass through the states of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Started in 2018, the project is set to be completed by the end of 2023.

The expressway is expected to reduce the travel time between Delhi and Mumbai by up to 12 hours.

The expressway will also have several rest stops and will be equipped with advanced technology such as electronic toll collection, smart traffic management and surveillance systems.

The expressway will be built in a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model.

Some basic details

The expressway is being constructed with an initial budget of INR 98,000 crore.

According to claims by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, it will reduce the distance between Delhi and Mumbai by 180 km (from 1424 km to 1242 km).

Depending on the volume of traffic the expressway sees, there are plans in place to expand it to a 12-lane expressway in the future.

The reduction in distance and travel time is set to result in annual fuel savings of more than 320 million litres and reduce CO2 emissions by 850 million kg.

Some unique features

Importantly, the Delhi-Mumbai Expressway is set to introduce certain features seldom seen in road construction in India.

According to claims from the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, the expressway will boast of a state-of-art traffic management system.

There will also be a dedicated three metre wide corridor for laying utility lines including fibre optic cables, pipelines as well as solar power generation.

The expressway will also have provisions for rain water harvesting at intervals of 500 m, with over 2000+ water recharge points.

 Treaty of Alinagar

Signed on February 9, 1757, the Treaty of Alinagar between the Nawab of Bengal and the East India Company raised the curtains for British colonial expansion in India.

Treaty of Alinagar, 1757

Signed on February 9, 1757, the Treaty of Alinagar was signed between Robert Clive of the East India Company and Mirza Muhammad Siraj Ud Daula, then Nawab of Bengal.

It is said to be one of the key events leading up to the Battle of Plassey later that year.

Plassey was where the English laid a significant blow, defeating the nawab. It paved the way for the East India Company’s takeover of Bengal.

The name Alinagar was a short-lived reference to modern-day Kolkata, and the treaty came about after the nawab was faced with both the British and Afghan forces.

He compromised with the former; however, the peace was short-lived.

British advent in India: A quick backgrounder

After the Anglo-Mughal War which took place between 1686 and 1690, the British began consolidating their presence in the subcontinent.

It had established the Fort St. George in what was Madras, Fort William in then Calcutta and Bombay Castle by the beginning of the 18th century.

The British initially helped local princes and nawabs quell uprisings or revolts and they, in turn, gave them concessions.

Course of the treaty

In January 1757, the British attacked the town of Hooghly, close to then Calcutta, with over 700 men.

The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daulah, who had just come to power a year earlier in his early 20s, mobilised forces.

His troops would overpower the British and reach Calcutta on January 10, 1757, having lost over 600 men.

However, the losses sustained in the war had resulted in the nawab losing confidence.

He signed what came to be known as the Treaty of Alinagar with Robert Clive – who became the first British Governor of the Bengal Presidency – on February 9, 1757.

Siraj-ud-daulah agreed to the restoration of the company’s factories and allowed for the fortification of Calcutta.

Aftermath of the battle

The British then moved on to wrest the remaining territories in Bengal from the French, laying siege to Chandannagar.

However, the move did not go down well with the nawab.

But, Daulah was also wary of Afghan forces under Ahmad Shah Durrani and the Marathas.

Traders in his kingdom were already wary of him and there was a conspiracy led by the likes of his military general, Mir Jafar.

Events would later culminate in the Battle of Plassey on June 23, 1757.

It resulted in the East India Company gaining hold of Bengal and was a significant event in its rise to power in the subcontinent.